14 topics

Grammar that examiners notice.

The grammar that matters most for exam writing and speaking, from B1 to C1, with the mistakes examiners see most often.

Present perfect vs past simple

Choose between the present perfect (I have seen) and the past simple (I saw) by asking one question: is the time finished, or does it connect to now?

Both tenses talk about the past, but they look at it in different ways.

Use the past simple when the action happened at a finished time. We often say or know when: yesterday, last year, in 2019, two days ago.

Use the present perfect (have/has + past participle) when the past connects to now:

life experience, with no time given: I've visited Japan twice.
a situation that started in the past and continues now: She has worked here since 2020.
a recent action with a result now: I've lost my keys, so I can't get in.

Signal words. Ago, yesterday, last… and questions with when go with the past simple. Ever, never, already, yet, just, since and for (up to now) usually go with the present perfect. But for also works with the past simple when the period is finished: I lived in Paris for two years (I don't live there now).

Once you give a finished time, change to the past simple: I've been to Rome. I went there in 2018.

	Past simple	Present perfect
Form	verb + -ed or irregular (worked, went)	have/has + past participle (have worked, has gone)
Time	finished: yesterday, in 2019, ago	unfinished or not stated: ever, yet, since, for
Question	When did you arrive?	Have you ever been to Canada?

Examples

I have lived in Hanoi for six years.
We moved here in 2019.
Have you finished the report yet?
She started the course three weeks ago.
Prices have risen sharply since last year.
I saw that film when I was a student.

Common mistakes

I have seen him yesterday.
I saw him yesterday.
Yesterday is a finished time, so use the past simple.
I live here since 2020.
I have lived here since 2020.
For a situation that started in the past and continues now, use the present perfect with since or for.
When have you arrived?
When did you arrive?
Questions with when ask about a specific time, so they take the past simple.

In the exam: In IELTS Speaking Part 1 and the TOEFL Take an Interview task you often talk about experiences (I've always enjoyed…, I started learning…), and accurate tense choice is part of your grammar score. In IELTS Writing Task 1, describe trends up to now with the present perfect (has increased since 2010) and data from finished years with the past simple (fell in 2015). TOEIC Reading Part 5 regularly tests time signals such as since, ago and yet.

Future forms: will, going to and present tenses

Learn when to use will, be going to, the present continuous and the present simple to talk about the future.

English has several ways to talk about the future. The choice depends on when you made the decision and how certain you are.

will: decisions made at the moment of speaking, promises, offers and predictions based on opinion: I'll help you carry that. I think prices will go up.
be going to: plans you made before now, and predictions based on what you can see: I'm going to study medicine. Look at those clouds. It's going to rain.
present continuous: fixed personal arrangements (often with other people or already booked), usually with a time or place: I'm meeting the manager at 3 p.m.
present simple: timetables and schedules: The train leaves at 6.40.

After time words such as when, as soon as, before, after and until, use a present tense, not will: I'll call you when I arrive.

Form	Main use	Example
will + verb	instant decision, promise, opinion	I'll send it now.
be going to + verb	plan; prediction from evidence	We're going to open a new office.
present continuous	arrangement	She's flying to Seoul on Friday.
present simple	timetable	The conference starts at nine.

Examples

Don't worry, I'll lock the door.
We are going to launch the new app in May.
I'm having lunch with a client tomorrow.
The last bus leaves at 11.30.
Experts think demand will grow next year.
I'll text you as soon as I get home.

Common mistakes

I will call you when I will arrive.
I will call you when I arrive.
After when, as soon as, until and similar words, use the present simple for future meaning.
What do you do this weekend?
What are you doing this weekend?
To ask about plans and arrangements, use the present continuous (or going to). What do you do…? asks about habits or someone's job.
The phone's ringing. I'm going to answer it.
The phone's ringing. I'll answer it.
For a decision you make at the moment of speaking, use will. Going to suggests you had already planned it.

In the exam: IELTS Speaking Part 1 may ask about your plans (What are you going to do after your studies?), and using a range of future forms shows grammatical flexibility. TOEFL Write an Email tasks often need arrangements and promises (I'll send the form by Friday). TOEIC Listening Parts 3 and 4 frequently ask what a speaker will do next, so listen for I'll, I'm going to and let me.

Narrative tenses

Tell stories clearly with the past simple, past continuous, past perfect and past perfect continuous.

When you tell a story about the past, you usually need more than one past tense.

Past simple for the main events, in order: I opened the door and walked in.
Past continuous (was/were + -ing) for background, or an action in progress when something else happened: It was raining when I left.
Past perfect (had + past participle) for an action that happened before another past event: When I got to the station, the train had already left.
Past perfect continuous (had been + -ing) for a longer activity up to a moment in the past: She was tired because she had been working all night.

If you tell the events in the order they happened, the past simple is enough: I got up, had a shower and left. Use the past perfect when you go back to an earlier time, or when the past simple would change the meaning: When I arrived, the train left (I saw it leave) vs When I arrived, the train had left (it was already gone).

Tense	Form	Example
Past simple	verb + -ed or irregular	I missed the bus.
Past continuous	was/were + -ing	I was waiting at the stop.
Past perfect	had + past participle	The bus had already gone.
Past perfect continuous	had been + -ing	I had been waiting for an hour.

Examples

While I was cycling to work, I saw an accident.
By the time the police arrived, the thief had escaped.
The sun was shining and children were playing in the park.
Her eyes were red because she had been crying.
I had never flown before, so I was very nervous.

Common mistakes

When I arrived, the meeting already started.
When I arrived, the meeting had already started.
The meeting started before you arrived, so use the past perfect.
I was knowing the answer.
I knew the answer.
State verbs such as know, believe and want are not normally used in continuous forms.
While I walked home, it was starting to rain.
While I was walking home, it started to rain.
The longer background action takes the past continuous; the short action that interrupts it takes the past simple.

In the exam: IELTS Speaking Part 2 cue cards often ask you to describe a time when…, and a mix of narrative tenses makes your story clear and raises your grammar score. In the TOEFL Take an Interview task you may describe a past experience in about 45 seconds. In TOEIC Reading Part 5, sentences with by the time, when and already can test the past perfect.

Conditionals: zero, first, second and third

Use the four main conditional patterns to talk about facts, real possibilities, imagined situations and past regrets.

A conditional sentence has two parts: the if-clause (the condition) and the main clause (the result). The tenses you choose show how real or possible the situation is.

Zero conditional: general truths and facts. If you heat ice, it melts.
First conditional: real possibilities in the future. If it rains, we'll stay inside.
Second conditional: unreal or unlikely situations now or in the future. If I had more time, I would learn the piano.
Third conditional: imagined past situations that did not happen. If we had left earlier, we would have caught the train.

The if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma after it.

You can also use unless (= if not), as long as and provided that: You can't enter unless you have a ticket.

Type	If-clause	Main clause
Zero	present simple	present simple
First	present simple	will / can / may + verb
Second	past simple	would / could / might + verb
Third	past perfect	would / could / might have + past participle

Examples

If you mix blue and yellow, you get green.
If the price falls, more people will buy electric cars.
If I were the manager, I would change the schedule.
If she had studied harder, she would have passed the exam.
We won't finish on time unless everyone helps.

Common mistakes

If I will see her, I'll tell her.
If I see her, I'll tell her.
Do not use will in the if-clause of a first conditional.
If I would have more money, I would travel.
If I had more money, I would travel.
The second conditional uses the past simple in the if-clause, not would.
If I had seen the sign, I wouldn't make that mistake.
If I had seen the sign, I wouldn't have made that mistake.
The mistake happened in the past, so the result needs would have + past participle.

In the exam: Conditionals are very useful in IELTS Writing Task 2 for discussing consequences (If governments invested more in public transport, traffic would fall) and in IELTS Speaking Part 3 for hypothetical questions. In the TOEFL Academic Discussion, a well-placed conditional helps you support an opinion. TOEIC Reading Part 5 often tests the verb form after if, unless and provided that.

Countable and uncountable nouns with quantifiers

Know which nouns can be counted and choose the right quantifier: many or much, few or little, fewer or less.

Countable nouns have a singular and a plural form: one book, two books. Uncountable nouns have no plural and take a singular verb: information, advice, furniture, money, research, equipment, traffic.

Quantifiers change depending on the noun:

countable: many, a few, few, a number of, fewer
uncountable: much, a little, little, an amount of, less
both: some, any, a lot of, plenty of, most, all, no

A few and a little are positive (some, a small number or amount): A few students passed sounds fairly good. Few and little without a are negative (not many, not much, less than we hoped): Few students passed means the result was disappointing.

To count an uncountable noun, use a unit: a piece of advice, an item of furniture, two pieces of equipment.

Some nouns can be both, with a change in meaning: a coffee (a cup) vs coffee (the drink in general); a paper (a newspaper or an essay) vs paper (the material).

	Countable (plural)	Uncountable
large amount	many, a large number of	much, a large amount of
small amount (positive)	a few	a little
small amount (negative)	few	little
comparison	more, fewer	more, less

Examples

Could you give me some advice about the course?
There weren't many people at the meeting.
We have a little time before the train leaves.
Few tourists visit the island in winter.
The company bought three new pieces of equipment.
There is less traffic in the city on Sundays.

Common mistakes

Can you give me some informations?
Can you give me some information?
Information is uncountable, so it has no plural.
There were less people than we expected.
There were fewer people than we expected.
In exams, use fewer with plural countable nouns and less with uncountable nouns.
How much students are in your class?
How many students are in your class?
Many goes with plural countable nouns; much goes with uncountable nouns.

In the exam: IELTS Writing Task 1 needs accurate quantity language: the number of cars (countable) but the amount of energy (uncountable). Examiners also notice errors such as researches or advices. TOEIC Reading Part 5 frequently tests few/little, fewer/less and much/many, and nouns like equipment and luggage that are uncountable in English.

Articles: a/an, the and no article

Decide between a/an, the and no article by thinking about whether the noun is general, new or already known to the reader.

Articles are small words, but mistakes with them are very noticeable.

a/an is used with singular countable nouns when the listener doesn't know which one we mean, or when we mention something for the first time: I bought a laptop. It also describes jobs and types: She's an engineer.

the is used when the listener knows which one we mean:

it was mentioned before: The laptop was cheap.
there is only one: the sun, the internet, the government
the context makes it clear: Can you close the window?
superlatives and ordinals: the best, the first
some geographical names: the Pacific, the Alps, the United States

No article is used with plural and uncountable nouns when we talk in general: Cars cause pollution. Information is power. Compare: The information in this report is out of date (specific information).

A useful test: if you can ask "Which one?" and the answer is clear to the reader, you probably need the.

Situation	Article	Example
first mention, singular	a/an	There's a problem with the printer.
known or specific	the	The problem is the paper tray.
general, plural	no article	Printers are expensive to repair.
general, uncountable	no article	Paper is made from wood.
only one exists	the	the environment, the economy

Examples

Unemployment is a serious issue in many regions.
The unemployment rate rose to 6% last year.
She works as a nurse at the local hospital.
The graph shows changes in energy use between 2000 and 2020.
Children need exercise every day.
It was the most interesting lecture I have ever attended.

Common mistakes

The technology is changing our lives.
Technology is changing our lives.
When you mean technology in general, use no article.
He is engineer.
He is an engineer.
Jobs, like other singular countable nouns, need a/an.
Graph shows the number of tourists.
The graph shows the number of tourists.
You and the reader both know which graph, so use the.

In the exam: Article errors are some of the most frequent errors in learners' writing, and frequent small errors make it hard to show the control of grammar that IELTS examiners look for in higher bands. In Task 1 you write about the graph, the proportion of and the number of; in Task 2, general nouns usually take no article (Education is…). TOEFL Complete the Words and TOEIC Reading Part 6 also reward accurate small words in context.

The passive

Form the passive in any tense and use it to focus on actions, results and processes, including reporting structures like it is believed that.

In a passive sentence, the object of the action becomes the subject. The form is be + past participle, in any tense.

Use the passive when:

the person who does the action is unknown, obvious or unimportant: My bike was stolen.
you want to focus on the action or the result: The bridge was completed in 1932.
you are writing formally or describing a process: The leaves are dried and then crushed.

Add by + the agent only when it gives useful information: The novel was written by a teenager.

Reporting verbs have two passive patterns that are common in academic writing:

It is said / believed / thought that…: It is believed that the tower was built as a lighthouse.
Subject + is said / believed + to-infinitive: The tower is believed to have been a lighthouse.

Only transitive verbs (verbs with an object) can be passive. Verbs such as happen, arrive and die cannot.

Tense	Passive form	Example
Present simple	am/is/are + past participle	Rice is grown in the south.
Past simple	was/were + past participle	The results were published in May.
Present perfect	has/have been + past participle	Ten new schools have been built.
Present continuous	am/is/are being + past participle	The road is being repaired.
Future	will be + past participle	The winners will be announced on Friday.
Modal	modal + be + past participle	Forms must be signed.

Examples

The museum is visited by over a million people every year.
First, the bottles are collected and sorted by colour.
The report has been delayed until next month.
It is estimated that about a third of the food produced worldwide is lost or wasted.
The suspect is thought to have left the country.
All applications must be submitted online.

Common mistakes

The accident was happened at night.
The accident happened at night.
Happen has no object, so it cannot be passive.
The car is repairing at the moment.
The car is being repaired at the moment.
The car doesn't do the repairing. The present continuous passive needs being + past participle.
English is speaking in many countries.
English is spoken in many countries.
The passive uses the past participle, not the -ing form.

In the exam: The passive is essential for IELTS Academic Writing Task 1 process diagrams (the clay is shaped, then it is fired) and makes Task 2 essays sound more objective. In the TOEFL Read an Academic Passage task, passive and reporting structures (it is widely believed that…) are common, so recognising them helps comprehension. TOEIC Reading Part 5 often asks you to choose between an active and a passive verb form.

Relative clauses

Use who, which, that, whose, where and when to add information, and know the difference between defining and non-defining clauses.

Relative clauses give more information about a noun. They start with a relative word: who (people), which (things), that (people or things), whose (possession), where (places) or when (times).

Defining relative clauses tell us which person or thing we mean. They have no commas, and you can use that: The woman who interviewed me was very friendly.

Non-defining relative clauses add extra information about something we have already identified. They need commas, and you cannot use that: My manager, who has worked here for 20 years, is retiring.

In defining clauses, you can leave out the pronoun when it is the object of the clause: The book (that) I'm reading is excellent.

A non-defining clause with which can refer to a whole idea: The train was late, which meant I missed the meeting.

In formal writing, a preposition often goes before which or whom: the company for which she works.

Word	Refers to	Example
who	people	the student who won the prize
which	things, whole ideas	the course, which lasts two years,
that	people or things (defining only)	the app that I use every day
whose	possession	the man whose car was stolen
where	places	the town where I grew up
when	times	the year when we met

Examples

Students who submit late will lose marks.
The library, which opened in 1890, is the oldest in the region.
That's the colleague whose idea won the award.
This is the café where we had our first meeting.
Sales fell sharply in March, which surprised most analysts.
The person to whom this letter is addressed has left the company.

Common mistakes

My sister, that lives in Paris, is a doctor.
My sister, who lives in Paris, is a doctor.
Non-defining clauses (with commas) cannot use that.
This is the hotel where we stayed there.
This is the hotel where we stayed.
Don't repeat the place or the object. The relative word already replaces it.
The man which called you is waiting outside.
The man who called you is waiting outside.
Use who or that for people, not which.

In the exam: IELTS examiners look for a range of complex sentences in both Writing and Speaking, and relative clauses are one of the most reliable ways to build them. In IELTS Writing Task 1 they help you combine data (Japan, which had the highest figure, …). TOEIC Reading Part 5 often tests the choice between who, which, whose and where, and TOEFL Build a Sentence tasks may ask you to put the words of a relative clause in order.

Modal verbs of speculation and deduction

Use must, might, may, could and can't (plus have + past participle) to show how sure you are about the present and the past.

We use modal verbs to show how certain we are about something, based on the evidence we have.

About the present:

must = I'm almost sure it's true: She must be tired; she's been working since six.
might / may / could = it's possible: He might be in a meeting.
can't = I'm almost sure it's not true: That can't be Tom; he's on holiday.

About the past, use modal + have + past participle:

must have: The road is wet. It must have rained.
might / may / could have: They might have missed the bus.
can't / couldn't have: She can't have seen the email; she hasn't replied.

The opposite of must for deduction is can't, not mustn't. In British English, mustn't normally means something is not allowed. In American English, must not can also express a negative deduction (He must not be home), but can't is correct everywhere and is the safe choice in exams.

For an action in progress, use be + -ing: He must be working from home today.

Certainty	Present	Past
almost certain (yes)	must + verb	must have + past participle
possible	might / may / could + verb	might / may / could have + past participle
almost certain (no)	can't / couldn't + verb	can't / couldn't have + past participle

Examples

The lights are off. They must be out.
I can't find my wallet. I might have left it at the café.
This can't be the right address; it's a car park.
The ground is dry, so it can't have rained last night.
She's late. She could be stuck in traffic.
He knows a lot about wine. He must have worked in a restaurant.

Common mistakes

He mustn't be at home; his car isn't there.
He can't be at home; his car isn't there.
For a negative deduction, use can't. In British English, mustn't expresses prohibition (You mustn't park here).
She must went home early.
She must have gone home early.
For a deduction about the past, use modal + have + past participle.
It can be true, but I'm not sure.
It could be true, but I'm not sure.
For possibility about one particular situation, use could, might or may. Can is for general possibility (Winters can be very cold here).

In the exam: In IELTS Speaking Part 3 and the TOEFL Academic Discussion you often speculate about causes and future developments, and modals let you sound careful rather than overconfident. In the TOEIC Speaking Describe a picture task, careful guesses such as they might be colleagues or it must be early morning help you say more about the photo. In listening tests, must have and can't have can signal a speaker's conclusion, which is exactly what inference questions target.

Reported speech

Report statements, questions and requests accurately, with the right tense changes and reporting verbs such as advise, deny and suggest.

Reported speech tells someone what another person said without quoting their exact words.

When the reporting verb is in the past (said, told), the tense usually moves one step back:

present simple → past simple: "I work here." → She said she worked there.
present perfect → past perfect: "I've finished." → He said he had finished.
past simple → past perfect, or no change when the order of events is clear: "I saw her." → He said he had seen her / he saw her.
will → would, can → could, may → might

If the information is still true, you can keep the original tense: She said she works in Tokyo (she still does).

Pronouns, time words and places change when the context changes: today → that day, tomorrow → the next day, here → there.

Questions use statement word order and no do/does/did: "Where do you live?" → He asked me where I lived. Yes/no questions use if or whether.

Say or tell? Tell needs a person: She told me (that)…. Say does not: She said (that)….

Many reporting verbs summarise the speaker's purpose: advise, suggest, warn, admit, deny, promise, refuse, recommend.

Direct speech	Reported speech
"I am tired."	He said (that) he was tired.
"We have finished."	They said they had finished.
"I will call you."	She said she would call me.
"Can you help?"	He asked if I could help.
"Don't touch it."	She told me not to touch it.

Examples

She told me that the meeting had been cancelled.
He asked whether the price included breakfast.
The doctor advised me to get more sleep.
The minister denied taking the money.
My manager suggested meeting on Monday instead.
They said they would send the contract the next day.

Common mistakes

He said me that he was busy.
He told me that he was busy.
Say is not followed directly by a person; use tell + person.
She asked me where did I live.
She asked me where I lived.
Reported questions use statement word order without did.
He suggested me to apply for the job.
He suggested that I apply for the job.
Suggest is not followed by object + to-infinitive. Use suggest that… or suggest + -ing.

In the exam: In IELTS Writing Task 2 and the TOEFL Academic Discussion, reporting verbs (critics argue that…, some people claim…) let you present other views before giving your own. In IELTS Speaking Part 2 you may need to describe a conversation or a piece of advice someone gave you. TOEIC Listening Parts 3 and 4 often ask what someone said or requested, and Reading Part 5 tests patterns like advise someone to and recommend + -ing.

Gerunds and infinitives

Learn which verbs are followed by -ing and which by to + verb, and how remember, stop and try change meaning.

When one verb follows another, the second verb is either a gerund (-ing) or an infinitive (to + verb). The first verb decides which.

verb + -ing: enjoy, avoid, consider, finish, mind, suggest, recommend, risk, deny, keep: I avoid driving in the rush hour.
verb + to-infinitive: want, decide, hope, plan, agree, refuse, manage, afford, offer, promise: We decided to postpone the trip.
verb + object + to-infinitive: ask, tell, advise, encourage, allow, expect: She encouraged me to apply.

Always use -ing after a preposition: She's interested in studying law. Thank you for waiting. Note that look forward to, be used to and object to end in the preposition to: I look forward to meeting you.

Some verbs take both forms with a change in meaning:

remember / forget: I remember locking the door (a memory) vs Remember to lock the door (a task).
stop: He stopped smoking (he quit) vs He stopped to smoke (he paused in order to smoke).
try: Try restarting it (an experiment) vs I tried to lift it (an effort).

Pattern	Common verbs	Example
verb + -ing	enjoy, avoid, consider, finish, suggest	They considered moving abroad.
verb + to-infinitive	decide, hope, refuse, manage, afford	He refused to answer.
verb + object + to-infinitive	ask, advise, allow, encourage	My tutor advised me to rewrite it.
preposition + -ing	interested in, good at, before, after	She left without saying goodbye.

Examples

Would you mind closing the window?
The company has agreed to extend the deadline.
Our manager encouraged us to share our ideas.
After finishing the course, she found a job in marketing.
Please remember to sign the form before you leave.
I look forward to receiving your reply.

Common mistakes

I look forward to hear from you.
I look forward to hearing from you.
In look forward to, to is a preposition, so it is followed by -ing.
She suggested to take a taxi.
She suggested taking a taxi.
Suggest is followed by -ing (or that + clause), not a to-infinitive.
I can't afford buying a new car.
I can't afford to buy a new car.
Afford is followed by a to-infinitive.

In the exam: Verb patterns are a favourite TOEIC Reading Part 5 target: you choose between to apply, applying and apply after verbs such as recommend, agree or look forward to. In formal emails (TOEFL Write an Email, IELTS General Training Task 1), set phrases like I look forward to hearing from you and I would appreciate receiving… must be accurate. Correct patterns also raise your IELTS grammatical accuracy score in both Writing and Speaking.

Mixed conditionals

Combine past and present time frames in one conditional sentence to talk about how past events affect the present, and vice versa.

Mixed conditionals combine two time frames in one sentence, because the condition and the result belong to different times.

Past condition → present result. An imagined change in the past would affect the present. Use a third-conditional if-clause with a second-conditional main clause:

If I had taken that job in London, I would be living there now.

Present (or permanent) condition → past result. A present fact or a permanent quality would have changed a past event. Use a second-conditional if-clause with a third-conditional main clause:

If she weren't so organised, the project would have failed.

To choose the form, ask two questions: When is the condition true? and When is the result?

In formal English, you can drop if and invert the subject and auxiliary: Had I known, I would be with them now. Were it not for her support, I would have given up.

Type	If-clause	Main clause	Example
Past → present	past perfect	would / could / might + verb	If I had saved more, I would be better off now.
Present → past	past simple	would / could / might have + past participle	If I spoke Spanish, I would have understood the guide.

Examples

If he hadn't broken his leg, he would be playing in the final tomorrow.
If we had invested in renewable energy earlier, we wouldn't be so dependent on imports today.
If I weren't afraid of heights, I would have climbed to the top.
If she had accepted the offer, she might be a partner at the firm by now.
Had the city built a metro in the 1990s, traffic would be far lighter today.
If he were more careful, he wouldn't have made such a basic mistake.

Common mistakes

If I had studied medicine, I would have been a doctor now.
If I had studied medicine, I would be a doctor now.
With now, the result is in the present, so use would + verb, not would have + past participle.
If I would have known, I would be there now.
If I had known, I would be there now.
Don't use would in the if-clause; a past condition takes the past perfect.
If he isn't so shy, he would have spoken to her.
If he weren't so shy, he would have spoken to her.
An unreal present condition takes the past simple (were/weren't), even when the result is in the past.

In the exam: Accurate mixed conditionals are a clear sign of the grammatical range and flexibility that the higher IELTS bands describe in both Writing and Speaking. They are especially useful in IELTS Speaking Part 3 and Writing Task 2 when you evaluate past decisions and their effects today (If cities had been planned around public transport, they would be more liveable now). In the TOEFL Academic Discussion, one accurate mixed conditional can strengthen an argument about causes and consequences.

Inversion for emphasis

Put negative and limiting expressions such as never, not only and only when at the start of a sentence for formal emphasis.

In formal English, we can put a negative or limiting expression at the start of a sentence for emphasis. The subject and the auxiliary then change places, as in a question.

I have never seen such a crowd. → Never have I seen such a crowd.

Common expressions that trigger inversion:

Never, Rarely, Seldom, Hardly ever
Not only… but (also)
No sooner… than and Hardly / Scarcely… when
Under no circumstances, On no account, In no way
Only then, Only when…, Only after…, Only by…
Not until…
Little (meaning "not at all"): Little did they know…

If there is no auxiliary, add do/does/did: Rarely does the city experience snow.

With only when, only after and not until, the inversion is in the main clause, not in the time clause: Only when the results came in did we realise our mistake.

Inversion sounds formal and dramatic, so use it sparingly: one or two examples in an essay is plenty.

Normal order	With inversion
We rarely see such talent.	Rarely do we see such talent.
The plan was expensive and it was also unpopular.	Not only was the plan expensive, but it was also unpopular.
As soon as I arrived, it started to rain.	No sooner had I arrived than it started to rain.
You should not leave the door open under any circumstances.	Under no circumstances should you leave the door open.
We understood only later.	Only later did we understand.

Examples

Seldom has a government faced such strong opposition.
Not only does the scheme save money, but it also reduces waste.
Hardly had the meeting begun when the power went out.
Only by working together can we solve this problem.
Not until the last guest had left did she finally relax.
Little did she realise how much her life was about to change.

Common mistakes

Never I have seen such a mess.
Never have I seen such a mess.
After a negative adverb at the start, the auxiliary comes before the subject.
Only when I got home I realised my phone was missing.
Only when I got home did I realise my phone was missing.
With only when, invert the main clause, not the time clause.
No sooner had we sat down when the fire alarm went off.
No sooner had we sat down than the fire alarm went off.
No sooner pairs with than; hardly and scarcely pair with when.

In the exam: Used accurately and sparingly, inversion helps show the wide range of structures that the higher IELTS bands describe, especially in Writing Task 2 (Not only does this policy reduce emissions, but it also…). It is too formal for most conversation, so use it rarely, if at all, in IELTS Speaking. In TOEFL and TOEIC reading, recognising inverted sentences stops you misreading who did what, and TOEIC Reading Part 5 occasionally tests Not only… but also and Rarely does….

Cleft sentences

Use it-clefts and what-clefts to focus attention on the key part of a sentence, for contrast, correction and clear argument.

A cleft sentence splits one idea into two clauses so that one part gets extra focus. Clefts are common in both speech and writing.

It-clefts: It + be + focused part + that/who + rest of the sentence

Maria solved the problem. → It was Maria who solved the problem (not someone else).
It was in 2008 that the company first made a profit.

Wh-clefts (pseudo-clefts): What + clause + be + focused part

I need a long holiday. → What I need is a long holiday.
What surprised me was how quiet the city was.

You can focus on a whole action with do: What she did was (to) call the police. Or on an event with happen: What happened was (that) the server crashed.

Other useful patterns: The reason (why)… is that…, The thing that… is…, All I want is…, The place where… is….

Cleft sentences are useful for correcting someone, contrasting ideas and introducing your main point.

Type	Pattern	Example
It-cleft	It is/was + X + that/who…	It was the cost that worried us.
Wh-cleft	What + clause + is/was + X	What worried us was the cost.
Action focus	What + subject + do/did + is/was + (to) verb	What we did was cut our prices.
Reason	The reason (why)… is that…	The reason I'm late is that the bus broke down.
All	All + clause + is/was…	All I asked for was a little patience.

Examples

It was the price, not the quality, that put customers off.
What I really enjoy about the job is meeting new people.
It wasn't until I moved abroad that I appreciated my family.
What the government should do is invest in training.
The reason many people avoid public transport is that it is unreliable.
All we need now is a decision from the board.

Common mistakes

What I need it is more time.
What I need is more time.
Don't add an extra subject it after the wh-clause.
It was in Rome where we first met.
It was in Rome that we first met.
When the focused part is a phrase such as in Rome or in 2008, use that, not where or when.
The reason why I left is because the salary was low.
The reason why I left is that the salary was low.
In careful writing, the reason… is is followed by that; because repeats the idea of reason.

In the exam: Cleft sentences help you signal your main point clearly, which supports coherence in IELTS Writing Task 2 (What is often overlooked is…) and fluency in IELTS Speaking Part 3 (What I really like about it is…). In the TOEFL Academic Discussion, a cleft is a natural way to respond to another student (What Anna doesn't mention is…). In listening tests, clefts often signal the key information that an answer depends on.